Theory and Research in Education recent issues

Editorial

Curren, R. — Fri, 30 Oct 2009 09:46:41 PDT

Home-based education in Sweden: Local variations in forms of regulation

Villalba, C. M. — Fri, 30 Oct 2009 09:46:41 PDT

In Sweden approximately 100 children a year are in home-based education, which is regulated by local policies that interpret legislation and guide practice. Based on a detailed analysis of documents drawn up in two municipalities, the article highlights different interpretations of the role and requirement of insyn (insight) in the governance and monitoring of home education through municipal authority-home arrangements.

Why state sanctions fail to deter home education: An analysis of home education in Germany and its implications for home education policies

Spiegler, T. — Fri, 30 Oct 2009 09:46:41 PDT

Home education in Germany is a contravention to the school law, and severe sanctions are applied against it. Despite this, a small home education movement has developed within the last 25 years. This article, after a short overview of home education in Germany, examines the reasons why a policy with sanctions fails to deter homeschooling. Then I point out why the legitimate interests of the state and the child, which are usually given to justify the prohibition of home education, might be better served if home education were legal but regulated and controlled.

Understanding homeschooling: A better approach to regulation

Kunzman, R. — Fri, 30 Oct 2009 09:46:41 PDT

Drawing from six years of qualitative research, this article analyzes the broad range of proposed and existing homeschool regulations throughout the United States. It argues that current homeschool regulations — and most proposals for how to improve them — misjudge the complexity of such an endeavor; state resources are misused and the basic interests of children are not protected. Theoretical arguments about the relative interests of parents, children and the state are important to consider, but our policies must also recognize the limits of what we can and should demand of this unique form of nonpublic schooling. A more modest approach to regulation that focuses on basic skills testing would ultimately be more effective at helping the students who need it most.

Homeschooling in the USA: Past, present and future

Gaither, M. — Fri, 30 Oct 2009 09:46:41 PDT

This article first examines why the homeschooling movement in the USA emerged in the 1970s, noting the impact of political radicalism both right and left, feminism, suburbanization, and public school bureaucratization and secularization. It then describes how the movement, constituted of left- and right-wing elements, collaborated in the early 1980s to contest hostile legal climates in many states but was taken over by conservative Protestants by the late 1980s because of their superior organization and numerical dominance. Despite internal conflicts, the movement’s goals of legalizing and popularizing homeschooling were realized by the mid-1990s. Since that time homeschooling has grown in popularity and is increasingly being utilized by more mainstream elements of society, often in conjunction with public schools, suggesting that ‘homeschooling’ as a political movement and ideology may have run its course.

Too cool for school?: Gifted children and homeschooling

Winstanley, C. — Fri, 30 Oct 2009 09:46:41 PDT

Homeschooling can be a last resort for frustrated families where gifted children are not having their complex needs met through mainstream schooling. Unlike many other groups of homeschoolers, parents of highly able children take this option for pragmatic reasons rather than as a kind of moral stance. This article explores some of the ways that standard schools fail gifted children and presents the perspectives of families who have made the choice to remove their gifted children from the mainstream education system. The difficulties inherent in researching both homeschooling and gifted education are also highlighted.

Can intimacy justify home education?

Merry, M. S., Howell, C. — Fri, 30 Oct 2009 09:46:41 PDT

Many parents cite intimacy as one of their reasons for deciding to educate at home. It seems intuitively obvious that home education is conducive to intimacy because of the increased time families spend together. Yet what is not clear is whether intimacy can provide justification for one’s decision to home educate. To see whether this is so, we introduce the concept of ‘attentive parenting’, which encompasses a set of family characteristics, and we examine whether and under what conditions attentive parents risk loss of intimacy by sending their children to school; or, alternatively, whether they can avoid this risk by educating children at home. What we will determine is whether families who exhibit the specified characteristics are prima facie justified in educating their children at home under the conditions of interest. We argue that, for attentive parents, home education not only promotes greater intimacy, but also provides insurance against the loss of intimacy that may occur under certain conditions when children attend schools.

Editorial

Thu, 25 Jun 2009 07:26:07 PDT

Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the classroom: Applying self-determination theory to educational practice

Niemiec, C. P., Ryan, R. M. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 07:26:07 PDT

Self-determination theory (SDT) assumes that inherent in human nature is the propensity to be curious about one's environment and interested in learning and developing one's knowledge. All too often, however, educators introduce external controls into learning climates, which can undermine the sense of relatedness between teachers and students, and stifle the natural, volitional processes involved in high-quality learning. This article presents an overview of SDT and reviews its applications to educational practice. A large corpus of empirical evidence based on SDT suggests that both intrinsic motivation and autonomous types of extrinsic motivation are conducive to engagement and optimal learning in educational contexts. In addition, evidence suggests that teachers' support of students' basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness facilitates students' autonomous self-regulation for learning, academic performance, and well-being. Accordingly, SDT has strong implications for both classroom practice and educational reform policies.

How K-12 teachers can put self-determination theory principles into practice

Reeve, J., Halusic, M. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 07:26:07 PDT

We discuss how K-12 teachers can put motivational principles from self-determination theory into practice. To explain the `how to' of autonomy-supportive teaching, we answer eight frequently asked questions from teachers: What is the goal of autonomy-supportive teaching? How is autonomy-supportive teaching unique? Does autonomy support mean permissiveness? How would I encourage students' initial engagement in learning activities? How could I help students maintain their engagement? What would I say/How might I talk? How would I solve motivational and behavioral problems? How do I know if I provided instruction in an autonomy-supportive way? To answer these questions, we recommend the following classroom practices: take the students' perspective, display patience to allow time for learning, nurture inner motivational resources, provide explanatory rationales, rely on noncontrolling language, and acknowledge and accept expressions of negative effect.

`What is the usefulness of your schoolwork?': The differential effects of intrinsic and extrinsic goal framing on optimal learning

Vansteenkiste, M., Soenens, B., Verstuyf, J., Lens, W. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 07:26:07 PDT

Various motivational frameworks converge to suggest that highlighting the relevance of a learning activity yields benefits for students' learning and performance. Herein, we review a set of studies grounded in self-determination theory's distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic goals, which show that the beneficial effect of a learning activity's utility value should be nuanced. Specifically, this effect depends on the particular goal that activity is thought to serve, such that intrinsic goal framing enhances learning and performance, whereas extrinsic goal framing does not. Such effects emerge regardless of students' personal goal preferences. Overall, this research suggests that teachers might do well to consider the content of the promoted goal when highlighting the utility value of a learning activity.

The role of parents in facilitating autonomous self-regulation for education

Grolnick, W. S. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 07:26:07 PDT

Self-determination theory identifies three dimensions of parenting — autonomy support versus control, involvement, and structure — as facilitating children's autonomous motivation in school. Research involving children of a range of ages — one-year-olds through adolescents — and from a variety of research labs supports this theory. This work is reviewed, as is research on characteristics of children and parents and their external surrounds that facilitate and undermine parenting that is conducive to children's autonomous motivation. Research suggests bidirectional and dynamic influences among context, parenting, and children's motivation.

Administrative pressures and teachers' interpersonal behaviour in the classroom

Pelletier, L. G., Sharp, E. C. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 07:26:07 PDT

The purpose of the present article is to review the contextual conditions that lead teachers to be more controlling rather than autonomy supportive with their students. Research indicates that the more teachers perceive that school administration thwarts their autonomy by imposing pressures on them, the less autonomous they are in their motivation for teaching, the more they become controlling in their teaching, and the more students demonstrate a controlled motivation orientation. At this point an element of reciprocity is introduced: teachers may be affected by the lack of students' motivation and their low performance because this reinforces the administration's perception that something needs to be done. Then teachers may perceive a pressure to behave in a controlling manner to be sure that the administration's standards are achieved.

Self-determination in medical education: Encouraging medical educators to be more like blues artists and poets

Patrick, H., Williams, G. C. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 07:26:07 PDT

Historically, medical education has focused largely on medical students' intellectual development, mostly ignoring the broader psychological milieu of medical practice. This chasm can result in practitioners who are less likely to process their emotions and/or support their patient's needs, and more likely to experience burnout. Self-determination theory (SDT) offers a unique perspective for understanding how the medical education environment can promote better integration of cognitive and psychological development through supporting the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, thus facilitating internalization of autonomous self-regulation for medical practice. Herein, we examine research applying SDT to medical education and offer suggestions that may facilitate both practitioners' and patients' well-being.

Motivation in physical education classes: A self-determination theory perspective

Ntoumanis, N., Standage, M. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 07:26:07 PDT

This article presents a brief overview of empirical studies in school physical education (PE) that have employed self-determination theory (SDT) and, where relevant, proposes ideas for future research in this area. First, we review research on teachers' interpersonal style and its relation to students' motivation. Second, we discuss intervention studies aimed at optimizing teachers' interactions with students. Third, we present an overview of findings suggesting that basic psychological needs and motivational regulations predict various cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes in PE. Finally, we provide practical recommendations for PE teachers drawing from initial intervention studies in PE.

Self-determination and bilingualism

Landry, R., Allard, R., Deveau, K. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 07:26:07 PDT

This article focuses on additive bilingualism for minority group children, more specifically the development of strong literacy skills in English and in the children's language. The personal autonomization language learning (PALL) model is presented. It specifies eight testable hypotheses. Self-determination theory (SDT) is central in the PALL model. It is argued that autonomy support in both languages is related to basic needs satisfaction (autonomy, competence, relatedness: ACR) which is in turn related to internally regulated motivation for learning the language. Owing to the strong social attraction of English, the model proposes that favouring the learning of the minority language and basic needs satisfaction in that language foster additive bilingualism because of the strong interlinguistic transfer of minority language competencies and of an internal motivational orientation. Self-determination to learn the minority language and minority literacy skills seems to transfer across languages. Research results support the model; these are summarized and educational implications are discussed.

Virtual worlds and the learner hero: How today's video games can inform tomorrow's digital learning environments

Rigby, C. S., Przybylski, A. K. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 07:26:07 PDT

Participation in expansive video games called `virtual worlds' has become a mainstream leisure activity for tens of millions of people around the world. The growth of this industry and the strong motivational appeal of these digital worlds invite a closer examination as to how educators can learn from today's virtual worlds in the development of next generation learning environments. Self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan and Deci, 2000) has shown value in explaining both the motivational dynamics of learning (Deci et al., 1994), as well as the strong motivational pull of video games and virtual worlds (Ryan et al., 2006). As such, SDT provides a framework that can bridge the gap between education and consumer virtual worlds and be applied to new research and development in how to best build virtual worlds for learning. The concept of the `learner hero' is introduced as a potentially useful unifying concept in considering how to leverage the high motivational appeal of commercial virtual worlds in building digital learning environments.

Undermining quality teaching and learning: A self-determination theory perspective on high-stakes testing

Ryan, R. M., Weinstein, N. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 07:26:07 PDT

Using tests to compare nations, states, school districts, schools, teachers, and students has increasingly become a basis for educational reform around the globe. Although tests can be informative, high-stakes testing (HST) is an approach to reform that applies rewards and sanctions contingent on test outcomes. Results of HST reforms indicate a plethora of unintended negative consequences, leading some to suggest that HST corrupts educational practices in schools. Although there are many accounts of these negative results, SDT supplies the only systematic theory of motivation that explains these effects. In what follows we describe the motivational principles underlying the undermining effects of HST on teachers and learners alike.

Combining vision with voice: A learning and implementation structure promoting teachers' internalization of practices based on self-determination theory

Assor, A., Kaplan, H., Feinberg, O., Tal, K. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 07:26:07 PDT

We propose that self-determination theory's conceptualization of internalization may help school reformers overcome the recurrent problem of `the predictable failure of educational reform' (Sarason, 1993). Accordingly, we present a detailed learning and implementation structure to promote teachers' internalization and application of ideas and practices based on self-determination theory. Finally, we discuss findings from two studies that (1) demonstrate the usefulness of the proposed structure in promoting educational reform, and (2) highlight the components of this structure that teachers report to be valuable.

Large-scale school reform as viewed from the self-determination theory perspective

Deci, E. L. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 07:26:07 PDT

Successful school reform requires that administrators, teachers, and students internalize the value of improved teaching and learning and of the policies, structures, procedures, and behaviors implicit in the reform. This is most likely to happen when school personnel and students experience satisfaction of their basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness while planning and implementing the reform. When the components of a reform are relatively flexible rather than rigid and when the processes through which the reform is introduced and implemented are autonomy supportive, people will experience greater need satisfaction and will be more likely to internalize and endorse the reform. This article focuses on one approach to comprehensive school reform, namely, First Things First, and examines it in terms of self-determination theory principles.

A cross-cultural analysis of autonomy in education: A self-determination theory perspective

Chirkov, V. I. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 07:26:07 PDT

In this article I highlight recent (published after 2000) cross-cultural studies on the role of autonomous academic motivation and autonomy support in students' cognitive and psychological development. The self-determination theory (SDT) thesis of a universal beneficial role of autonomous motivation is supported by numerous empirical results from educational researchers from diverse educational settings around the world. These results are discussed in terms of the importance of recognizing students' basic needs for autonomy in learning environments, and the cultural deterministic models of socio-cultural differences that have obscured that need. Studies within the SDT provide strong psychological evidence to support a more interactive, multidimensional picture of human nature in various sociocultural contexts.

Self-determination theory in schools of education: Can an empirically supported framework also be critical and liberating?

Ryan, R. M., Niemiec, C. P. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 07:26:07 PDT

In many graduate schools of education there is strong resistance to formal theories, especially those that are supported through quantitative empirical methods. In this article we describe how self-determination theory (SDT), a formal and empirically focused framework, shares sensibilities with critical theorists concerning the importance of actors' own embedded experiences of the world, and the importance of liberation and resistance to hegemony. Yet we argue that, unlike many post-modern views that are largely negative, SDT is truly critical precisely because it posits a common human nature, which can be more or less supported and allowed to flourish in different cultural and institutional contexts.

Equality, race and gifted education: An egalitarian critique of admission to NewYork City's specialized high schools

Mazie, S. — Fri, 27 Feb 2009 02:48:45 PST

Educational programs for gifted students face both philosophical and practical challenges from egalitarians. Some object that gifted schools inherently undermine a commitment to equality in education, while others observe that schools for talented students cater to privileged youth and effectively discriminate against disadvantaged minorities.This article taps into recent theorizing on equality to explore an illuminating case study: admissions policies at New York City's so-called `specialized' high schools. After dismissing less nuanced proposals on both ends of the spectrum,I draw upon Elizabeth Anderson's theory of `democratic egalitarianism' to argue that, while schools devoted to talented students could be seen as consistent with a commitment to equality, admissions policies for these schools must reach beyond meritocratic principles to ensure diversity in their student bodies. Racial and socioeconomic integration of social institutions, including schools — and elite schools perhaps most of all — should be a priority for those who care about democracy.

The importance of breaking set: Socialized cognitive strategies and the gender discrepancy in mathematics

Villalobos, A. — Fri, 27 Feb 2009 02:48:46 PST

Theories that explain the gender discrepancy in mathematics almost universally explain why boys are `better at math' than girls while failing to adequately account for girls' higher grades in math classes or better performances on tests of computational ability.This article develops a new, more comprehensive theoretical model that explains girls' advantages in some areas of math, while also showing how these advantages are a liability in the mathematical realms dominated by boys. Specifically, it argues that `strategy socialization' in risk-taking and rule-following disproportionately supports girls in the development of an `algorithmic strategy' and boys in a `problemsolving strategy'. As the algorithmic strategy leads to success in elementary school mathematics, girls' strategy socialization is rewarded and uncontested. However, the over-rewarding of this single strategy also leads to difficulties in switching strategies as demanded by higher mathematics. Boys' strategy socialization, by contrast, is at odds with early mathematics, contributing to boys' underperformance at this stage. However, boys' `strategic dissonance' gives them practice in switching strategies, which aids them in solving unfamiliar problems that require new approaches later in the curriculum.The implications for educational reform are discussed.

Presumptions against school district secession

Murray, D. — Fri, 27 Feb 2009 02:48:46 PST

While political philosophers have paid a great deal of attention to providing a theory of secession for cases of nations breaking away from nation-states, little has been said about perhaps the most common type of secession — school district secession. I argue that while there is no principled prohibition against school district secession, there are presumptions against the practice. After discussing why justice requires that all children are provided with an education that is autonomy-facilitating and also meets the standards of equality of opportunity, I show that many arguments offered for school district secession do not meet the criteria for justice. Finally, I investigate one policy alternative that concerned parents (at least those with more principled reasons for school district secession) may consider to mitigate their need to secede in cases where they seek more direct participation in the political decisions of their school districts.

All together now?: Some egalitarian concerns about deliberation and education policy-making

Newman, A. — Fri, 27 Feb 2009 02:48:46 PST

Deliberative theory has served two purposes in recent studies of education policy-making at the community level in the US: as a lens through which to examine existing practices, and as an ideal toward which to strive.These studies, though, overlook a prior and important theoretical question: should deliberative theory be applied to education policy-making? In this article, I explore this question from an egalitarian perspective. I criticize the prevailing assumption that deliberative decision-making is an egalitarian way to make education policy, by underscoring how it fails in this instance on its own terms. I argue that deliberating about education policy is especially problematic compared to deliberations about other social goods, owing to the unique relationship between education and political equality in public fora. I also highlight two features of American education — de facto segregation, and the availability of exit options — that further challenge the appropriateness of using deliberative processes for education policy-making. Given the current state of educational politics, I conclude by pointing to the benefits of school finance litigation and its rights-based approach, which establishes educational entitlements that apply across communities.

Dilemmas of autonomy and happiness: Harry Brighouse on subjective wellbeing and education

Warnick, B. R. — Fri, 27 Feb 2009 02:48:46 PST

Harry Brighouse has advanced an intriguing set of arguments about the place of human flourishing in liberal educational theory. In his book On Education, Brighouse argues that autonomy can be justified instrumentally because it promotes flourishing. He links flourishing to the psychological concept of `subjective wellbeing' and he spells out the implications of subjective wellbeing research for educational policy. Each of these moves, while promising, raises questions. It is unclear how the instrumental justification for autonomy is a political improvement for liberalism over other justifications, and the link between autonomy and flourishing can be questioned on empirical grounds. In addition, a focus on subjective wellbeing may be irrelevant to the central ethical considerations relating to education and economic growth. Finally, the use of social science research on subjective wellbeing may present problems if it is used to construct educational policies around the `central tendencies' of large populations while overlooking students with more eccentric preferences.

Book review: Dina Kiwan, Education for Inclusive Citizenship, Routledge, Taylor & Francis, London and New York, 2008. 168 PP. ISBN 978--0415--42368--7, {pound}24.99 OR $44.95 (pbk)

Ben-Porath, S. — Fri, 27 Feb 2009 02:48:46 PST

Book review: Kent Greenawalt Does God Belong in Public Schools?, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 2005. 272 pp. ISBN: 0--691--12111--7, {pound}29.95 or $49.50 (hbk); 272 pp. ISBN: 0--691--13065--5, {pound}11.50 or $18.95 (pbk)

Buckley, P. — Fri, 27 Feb 2009 02:48:46 PST

Book review: Richard Pring John Dewey: A Philosopher of Education for ourTime? Continuum, London, 2007. 190 pp. ISBN 978--0826--48403--1, {pound}75 or $144 (hbk)

Maxwell, B. — Fri, 27 Feb 2009 02:48:46 PST

Book review: David J. Blacker Democratic Education Stretched Thin: How Complexity Challenges a Liberal Ideal, State University of New York Press, Albany, NY, 2007. 249 pp. ISBN 978--0791--46966--8, {pound}14.00 or $27.95 (pbk)

MacMullen, I. — Fri, 27 Feb 2009 02:48:46 PST

What can lotteries do for education?

Stone, P. — Thu, 09 Oct 2008 01:58:42 PDT

England's new School Admissions Code endorses the use of lotteries to admit students to oversubscribed schools. Is this endorsement wise? This article argues that lotteries make decision-making without regard to reasons possible. This sanitizing effect is desirable in order to protect against bad reasons. This effect could make at least four distinct contributions to school admission arrangements.The most important of these contributions is the ability of lotteries to ensure impartiality , an essential component of justice.Whether these contributions justify resort to admission by lottery, however, depends upon the circumstances under which admission must take place, and these circumstances are likely to be controversial in real-life cases.

The school is the problem, not the solution

Schrag, F. — Thu, 09 Oct 2008 01:58:42 PDT

To what extent is the design of American schooling adapted to the lofty aspirations educators have enunciated during the last century? I first enumerate these aspirations as well as the basic design of schooling; then I evaluate the match. After highlighting the limitations of the basic design, I point to some alternative settings offering greater likelihood of realizing these aspirations? In the conclusion, I identify three stances one might adopt with respect to the results of the analysis.

`White privilege': A mild critique1

Blum, L. — Thu, 09 Oct 2008 01:58:42 PDT

White privilege analysis has been influential in philosophy of education. I offer some mild criticisms of this largely salutary direction — its inadequate exploration of its own normative foundations, and failure to distinguish between `spared injustice', `unjust enrichment' and `non-injustice-related' privileges; its inadequate exploration of the actual structures of racial disparity in different domains (health, education, wealth); its tendency to deny or downplay differences in the historical and current experiences of the major racial groups; its failure to recognize important ethnic differences within racial groups; and its overly narrow implied political project that omits many ways that White people can contribute meaningfully to the cause of racial justice.

The status of the subject in the classroom community of inquiry

Simenc, M. — Thu, 09 Oct 2008 01:58:42 PDT

This article deals with the issue of how to establish an authentic community of inquiry. I propose the introduction of a distinction between two stages of the community of inquiry: the stage of an emergent community of inquiry and the stage of an established community of inquiry. Further on, I propose an analysis of the structure of intentions and goals in the community of inquiry using Elster's concept of `states that are essentially by-products'. I suggest that the position of the subject be defined on the basis of the aforementioned two stages of the community: in the first stage, there is a community consisting of equal individuals who voluntarily engage in dialogue, whereas in the second stage there is a subject who is not engaged in dialogue, but arises in it at a certain point. It seems that it is the internalized dialogical community, in which the participants are equal and strive for clarity and transparency, that generates the necessary space for the particular foundation of the subject to show itself — the particular foundation that is not yet captured in reflection and that defies articulation in dialogue.

Cardinal virtues of academic administration

Curren, R. — Thu, 09 Oct 2008 01:58:42 PDT

The aim of this article is to articulate the basic elements of a comprehensive ethic of academic administration, organized around a set of three cardinal virtues: commitment to the good of the institution; good administrative judgment; and conscientiousness in discharging the duties of the office. In addition to explaining this framework and defending its adequacy, the article develops an account of the nature of integrity, and argues that the three cardinal virtues of academic administration can be captured in the concept of integrity in academic administration.The Aristotelian basis for this framework is summarized, and its central ideas are illustrated through a variety of applications.

Book review: Ian MacMullen, Faith in Schools? Autonomy, Citizenship, and Religious Education in the Liberal State, Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford, 2007. 230 pp. ISBN 978--0691--13091--0, {pound}19.95 (hbk)

Blokhuis, J.C. — Thu, 09 Oct 2008 01:58:42 PDT